In between these relatively interesting narratives is the traditional water management system that is visible in Manipur’s Liyai Khullen village in northern Senapati District. The principle adopted by the village is as similar to the Hiti system of Kathmandu and the Dawuhan system of Cetho. The crystal clear water flow is channelized through aqueducts and stored in water tanks like the Dhunge Dhara of Kathmandu.
By Salam Rajesh
The wide expanse of Manigala, the namesake of Mangal Bazaar in urban Kathmandu city is a mind blogging space full of humans mingling like myriad ants at work, seeking to satisfy themselves with glimpses of Nepal’s medieval history of monarchs and their glorification of the gods – both of the Hindu and the Buddhist mythologies.
The imposing temple structures reveal a fascinating network of ancient water management system intertwined across the temple complexes, providing continuous flow of water supply for the population in the city, and well hidden from the eye.
The Dhunge Dhara or the medieval stone watersprouts at Dhobighat in the city are a thread of water points connected to one another through a covered labyrinth of water ways. The Dhunge Dharas located at Patan in the southern part of Kathmandu city are added wonders amidst the impressive medieval temples and palace structures built by various dynasties who ruled the Kathmandu valley during periods of Nepal’s medieval history.
As the Himalayan country’s history unfolds, it is said that the Lichhavi dynasty who ruled the Kathmandu valley in the medieval period developed two important trade routes, one linked to Lhasa in Tibet and the other heading to India, and these historic passages converged at the Manigala.
What is fascinating about the Hanuman-Dhoka Durbar Square, a prominent feature of intricate medieval architecture at Patan, is the story of a stream known as Hakha Khushi that used to flow in a south-north direction in the ancient times and which had since disappeared.
The relevance of the story finds reflection on the occasion of the annual ritualistic festival in May when two massive Bungadyah’s chariots are pulled across the square. Everyone who attends the chariot pulling festivity has to take off their shoes when progressing over the square in the belief they are crossing over the ancient stream that used to flow there.
The intrigue is in the belief of an ancient stream that once flowed in the square and the existing structure of the Dhunge Dharas that continue to provide water supply for the local population uninterrupted through time. As explained by Rishi Amatya, a local medieval history scholar, a hidden network of pipeline connects with all water tanks located in the square. This water supply network is a marvel in itself.
The watersprouts are protruding iron cast pipes elaborately ornamented with legendary figurines of characters from Hindu mythology. Each figurine – crocs, fish, birds – have their own tale to tell for the inquisitive visitor at the Dhunge Dhara.
Fauzan Ali Ikhsan et al. (2022) in their paper ‘Water Sustainability Concept of Hindu Javanese Community Settlements toward Global Climate Change Resilience in the Indonesia Mountainous Area’ (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365988865) reflects that, “Ancient civilizations have shown that traditional settlements have had local wisdom in managing water. For example, people in the mountainous region of Kathmandu in Nepal have a water management method called Hiti”.
Fauzan insists that the Hiti system symbolizes the relationship between the mountains-springs-settlements-farm fields, forming an organic environment ecosystem that is well balanced. In addition to maintaining physical water continuity, the Javanese Hindu community in Indonesia maintains spiritual tradition of Dawuhan to contain the spirit of its people in maintaining water sustainability, as similarly as in Kathmandu’s Patan locality.
This understanding is in line with the Hindu teachings embraced by the Javanese Hindu community in Indonesia, Fauzan writes, emphasizing the concept that in continuing with life, people must always maintain the fundamental relationship between Man-God, Man-Man, and Man-Nature in order to create harmonious life.
The Dhunge Dhara of Kathmandu and the Dawuhan of Cetho are amazingly similar. The water system of Kathmandu in Nepal and that of Cetho village in Indonesia share that sense of water sustainability to sustain human life, and both are transfixed within temple complexes.
The Dawuhan of Cetho is fused with the Cetho Temple complex located in Cetho village of Karanganyar in Indonesia. The settlement of Hindu Javanese community within the Cetho Temple area is an ancient settlement that still survives on the western slopes of Mount Lawu. This resounds with the Hindu, and Buddhist, community who are settled in the Manigala area of Kathmandu through periods of medieval history.
Amazingly similar is the concept in the natural flow of the springs. At Cetho, the belief is that in the ancient times, the water from the Pundisari springs was distributed equally to settlements using water pipes made of bamboo stems connected in a series. The water was distributed to several water points called Kalibaku located within the settlements, utilizing the principle of gravity, that is, water flows from an upper to a lower point. That also is the principle of the Dhunge Dhara of Kathmandu.
In between these relatively interesting narratives is the traditional water management system that is visible in Manipur’s Liyai Khullen village in northern Senapati District. The principle adopted by the village is as similar to the Hiti system of Kathmandu and the Dawuhan system of Cetho. The crystal clear water flow is channelized through aqueducts and stored in water tanks like the Dhunge Dhara of Kathmandu.
An interesting concept within these ancient beliefs is that the traditional settlements in the mountainous regions are most vulnerable to climatic impacts. The concept on the threat of water security in supporting the life of traditional settlements particularly in tough mountain regions appears to have long existed even before the present-day worry on the impacts of the triple planetary crises on food and water securities.
As Fauzan et al. writes, the mountain ecosystems with high slope characteristics tend to experience more complex impacts of climate change. One of the perceived impacts is the change in the hydrological cycle caused by changes in precipitation patterns in Earth’s atmosphere. Changes in the hydrological cycle cause changes in the balance of regional ecosystems, including agricultural productivity and the livelihoods of the region’s population, Fauzan notes.
Ecosystems relying on groundwater for some or all of their water needs are collectively referred to as groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs), and although GDEs occur across many biomes, they are of greatest concern in table plateaus and drylands, where near-surface water availability is limited compared to humid environments, notes Melissa M. Rohde et al. (2024) resonating on the reasoning of Fauzan et al.
Kathmandu’s and Cetho’s water sustainability systems hinge on this scientific assessment of ecosystem valuation. On this note, the United Nations Environment Programme (2021) reflects that biodiversity and ecosystems provide ecosystem services that benefit human economies and well-being, and where over half of the global gross domestic product – US$ 44 trillion as of 2021 – is moderately or highly dependent on nature’s services.
Again, on this very note, the World Wildlife Fund (2021) assessed that Indigenous peoples and local communities (IPLCs) own and manages at least 32 percent of the global land and associated inland waters, and of which it is considered that 80 percent is still in relatively good condition. This, of course, is significant as in the case of the longevity of the Hiti system of Kathmandu and the Dawuhan system of Cetho, and of Liyai Khullen.